PAPER+SHARE


 * The Practices of Media Literacy Education in the Classroom **

This research aims to identify how media literacy education is being practically applied by educators in the classroom. Two case studies were conducted and critically analyzed. Three important points of comparison emerged from that data including content covered, discussion questions posed to the students, and the personal views on what the teacher believes is the type of curriculum utilized in their own classroom. We found that there is a major difference in how teachers are applying MLE even though they believe they have implemented a true media literacy education curriculum.
 * Abstract **

In the United States and around the world media literacy education (MLE) is a term not easily defined. Different educators and scholars have vastly different ideas about what MLE entails. Understandably, these same people cannot easily define MLE because of the variety of ideas and concepts that are presented. From this confusion, many teachers who wish to implement a MLE curriculum have a hard time conceptualizing a practical model that is both effective and can be categorized as true MLE. This paper will attempt to provide information, both historical and critical, about the most common and useful conceptualizations of MLE curricula. Two case studies regarding teachers who are implementing MLE (or what they call MLE) in the classroom will be presented along with a critical analysis of the two programs being used. While only two teachers were observed, they provide a good context for applying MLE in true form for the average American classroom.
 * Introduction **

The practices of MLE have been experimented within the public school system since the mid to late 1980’s, both inside a traditional classroom and during other programs (Hobbs 1998). Yet, now, in 2010, there is still confusion about how to correctly implement MLE in the American classroom and abroad. Most educators realize that media literacy is supposed to help students to understand media texts. But, MLE involves much more than simply understanding media text, even though these skills are still of importance at the beginnings of MLE. The National Association for Media Literacy Education (NAMLE) proposes that the “purpose of a media literacy education is to help individuals of all ages develop the habits of inquiry and skills of expression that they need to be critical thinkers, effective communicators and active citizens in today’s world” (National Association for Media Literacy Education 2008). MLE asks teachers to move away from the traditional “storehouses of knowledge” model that classrooms use. Doing so would subsequently help students learn to think autonomously (Thoman & Jolls 181). In other words, rather than the teachers transferring facts about what students need to know, MLE asks teachers to foster a learning environment where students can learn through critical thinking and critical discussion. According to the definition of media literacy compiled at the 1992 Aspen Media Literacy Leadership Institute the media literacy educational process is “the ability to access, analyze, evaluate, and create media in a variety of formats” (Thoman & Jolls 2005). NAMLE provides an easy to understand document that expands on this definition. They use what they refer to as “the core principles” of MLE. They provide an itinerary including what are and are not the goals of MLE (National Association for Media Literacy Education 2008). While the definitions and explanations may be found helpful, just reading these documents does not lead to teachers implementing true MLE in their classroom. Helpful and accurate MLE literature is lacking when it comes to providing a structure that can be easily introduced into a classroom. This is where a disconnection between the concept of MLE and the application of MLE can be found. Many teachers misunderstand how to accurately apply MLE in their classroom. While there are some case studies including, but not limited to, Steven Goodman’s // Teaching Youth Media // and Hobb’s // Reading the Media: Media Literacy in High School English // teachers are still feeling lost when it comes to using MLE in their own classrooms. Practical and easy to understand documents about implementing MLE in the classroom that also provide an adaptable structure but still remain felxible to different age groups, subject areas and cultures are crucial to the field. One of the most prominent disconnects between scholars and practitioners of MLE is the ultimate goal of teaching students true media literacy. Many proponents of media literacy believe that we must help students think critically about the media (NAMLE, Hobbs, Thoman & Jolls). Yet, a protectionist side exists that believes the goal of MLE is to be inoculating students against the “harmful effects” of the media (AAP). Learning through a protectionist viewpoint may give students the skills to simply think more about the media that they are consuming, but it lacks teaching the real critical thinking skills that MLE introduces. While protectionist views label media as bad, MLE lets the student make distinctions on their own, usually resulting in less either/or thinking. Either/or thinking, or binary oppositions, was studied in Jeffery A. Mangram’s 2008 paper. He found that learning about and describing media in terms of binary oppositions lends people to place judgment on certain texts instead of looking at them with a critical eye. Speaking in binary oppositions is especially dangerous when teachers use it to teach a text in a media literacy setting. They will automatically place a judgment on a text and also make their students feel as though there is a right or wrong answer. MLE is exactly the opposite; it is showing students that through critical thinking and discussion, there can be many more than just one answer. Similar ideas are also found in NAMLE’s outline in the core principles where they include that the media should not be presented as good or bad, but rather something that one must fully analyze in order to understand (National Association for Media Literacy Education 2008).
 * Literature Review **

Because there are so few published instances of MLE observations and case studies, classroom research was conducted in order to observe how teachers who believe they are implementing MLE have applied it in their classroom.
 * Focus Issue **

We observed lessons in each of two schools for a one-day period. Interviews were conducted both before and after the observation date. We not only observed the teachers but also were allowed to sit and interact with the students. Casual questions were asked of the students to gauge their interest level and understanding of the lesson. While we were only able to observe for a one-day period, the experience was not only relevant to the study of MLE, but also quite enlightening. How teachers practice MLE in their classrooms is extremely important seeing that they are responsible for helping students to learn the skills necessary to be critical thinkers in today’s media saturated world.
 * Research Design **

// Case Study One: Beeber Dimner Middle School and Samuel Reed // The first observation was with Sam Reed at Beeber Dimner Middle School in a 6th grade English class. Beeber Dimner is located in Philadelphia. Their mission statement includes wanting students to fulfill their civic duties and become active contributors and also hopes that their students leave wanting to be life-long learners ( Beeber Dimner Middle School - []). Beeber Dimner is a middle school that seems to lack organization. Students are constantly roaming the halls and are sometimes sitting in classrooms that they are not even supposed to be in. It seems there is no clear-cut structure. The actual building itself is older and obviously needs maintenance. 80% of the families who send their children to school at Beeber Dimner are economically disadvantaged. The school wide reading and math proficiency percentages are only in the 40s 2010). The 6th grade English class that we observed was made up of mostly black students, equally male and female. There were about 30 students and lesson ran for 50 minutes.  Samuel Reed was once a member of the Peace Corps and also once a business owner in Botswana. Reed holds a Bachelor of the Arts Degree in Computer Science from Cheyney State University of Pennsylvania, a MBA in Marketing from Atlanta University Graduate School of Business and a graduate degree in Education from Temple University in Philadelphia (http://www.thenotebook.org/users/sriii2000).   Two separate lessons of Reed’s were observed; the first was on copyright law. Reed used the context of rap artists “sampling” songs to help the students understand the concept of plagiarism. The students sat in groups of six for the duration of the class. Microsoft PowerPoint was used to place lyrics from a Public Enemy song entitled “Caught, Can We Get A Witness?” in which Chuck D discusses how he was taken to court for “stealing a beat” or what the recording industry calls sampling. (According to the OED in E// lectronics // and // Sound Recording // sampling sounds is the incorporation of an excerpt from one musical recording into another.) The Public Enemy quote was analyzed line by line. A student would be selected to read each line aloud, and then Reed would ask open-ended questions starting discussions in the classroom regarding the meaning of each line. After analyzing the Public Enemy quote line by line, Reed gave the students the dictionary definition of plagiarism on the PowerPoint to copy into their notebooks. Students were then asked to create a vocabulary square about the word plagiarism. A vocabulary square consists of four blocks, one for a student definition, one for a picture, one for an example, and the last for a non-example. The students worked in their groups to create their vocabulary squares on large sheets of paper. These papers were then placed in the front of the classroom. A representative from each group then went to the front of the room and explained why his group had made the choices they had inside the vocabulary square. Reed attempted to spark the students into a debate about whether or not sampling music in hip-hop or rap songs should be considered plagiarism. However, the students were rowdy and unresponsive to his questions. In the end, he gave them a writing assignment in which they had to answer the prompt: “When hip hop artists sample lyrics, is that plagiarism? In a brief paragraph explain your reasons why you think it is or is not plagiarism when hip hop artists sample music from other songs.” The second lesson observed in Reed’s classroom was on fairy tales. Three fairy tales were used: Blanca Flor, Rosalie, and Rumpelstiltskin. The lesson we observed was a part of a curriculum block that lasted over the course of a few weeks. Before our observation, the students read, analyzed, and compared the fairy-tales. They also compared and contrasted different renditions of the stories. We observed the students at the stage of the project when they were working on a storyboard for the movie they will be making of their own representation of a chosen fairytale. Reed has done this fairytale project with previous classes. After the students thoughtfully plan out their storyboards, scripts, shots, etc., they will then take a Flip camera and their “crews” and shoot their rendition. To get his current students thinking about their own films, Reed showed his previous classes’ films. After each short film, Reed would pause the tape and ask the students to discuss what they had just seen. Once again open-ended questions were asked about each film to spark critical discussion about themes, shots, words, music, etc. used and what messages were possibly being sent.

// Case Study Two: Phoenixville Middle School and Kevin Corcoran // Our second observation was conducted at Phoenixville Middle School in Phoenixville, Pennsylvania. Their mission statement is “to prepare, inspire, and graduate students to meet the challenges of the future” (Phoenixville Area School District, [] ). Phoenixville is a very organized school. As an example, there are never students roaming the halls. To leave the classroom, students must have a pass and this process is taken very seriously. The building is nicely maintained and obviously kept up to date in all aspects. Only 20% of the families who send their children to Phoenixville are economically disadvantaged. The school-wide math and English proficiency percentages are both around 80% (schooldatadirect.org,). Kevin Corcoran has a background in information technology. He holds a BA in Education from The College of New Jersey in Trenton, NJ and a MS in Telecommunications from Kutztown University. Corcoran’s class that we observed was a 7th grade communications class. The class was made up of a majority of white students with some Hispanic. There were about 11 students and the lesson ran for 50 minutes. This communications class replaces a health course, so Corcoran need to meet state standards regarding drug and tobacco education and other such standards (Corcoran personal communication, date). The lesson we observed was a computer game CD-ROM that the students were in the process of playing called MISSING. This game was developed by a non-profit Canadian organization called Web Wise Kids. In the game, the students must play the role of a police detective and save a child lured away from home by a sexual predator who first contacted the child though the internet. ( http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0EIN/is_2005_Oct_12/ai_n15685880/?tag=content;col1  ) Corcoran informed us that permission slips must be signed in order for the students to play because of the moderately graphic sexual abuse focus of the game and “risqué” pictures in the game (personal). The students each get a workbook with information about the missing children and make a criminal report on the predator they are searching for. The program is filled with reasoning games the students must solve to unlock evidence. From the evidence they must look for the clues that will answer the pages of their worksheets. Often times these clues are hidden in the background of pictures. Corcoran told us that because students were using background clues to find the missing child, they would learn that posting photographs of themselves online could be bad because then predators could look for clues in the background to find out where they live or often hangout (personal). Much of the game is watching video blogs and reading chats between the missing child and his father. Throughout, the children learn about how giving your information on the internet can be dangerous, how people can conceal their identity on the internet and about the nature of child molesters, child pornographers, and sex offenders in a “watered down” manner. In the middle of each level of the game, real stories and pictures of children that had been kidnapped were shown.

After reviewing our observation data, three main points emerged. These three points will be used to compare and contrast the two teachers, their lessons and their feelings about what MLE is and how to implement a sound program. // Content of the Lesson Plans // The lessons’ content reveals a major difference between the two different models of media education used in the classrooms. Reed is genuinely working toward empowering his students, at true attribute of real MLE. Reed utilizes a media literacy curriculum in tandem with his regular lesson planning in the English curriculum. During his first lesson on plagiarism, Reed used media literacy skills to not only teach his students how to read media, but also to impart on them basic writing and reading knowledge. In his second lesson, Fairy Tales, Reed uses reading and writing as a way to not only enhance basic English skills, but to also show his students that different texts can be understood and produced in a variety of ways. His questions and prompts encourage his students to think critically about the media texts. A great example of Reed’s true knowledge of media literacy was shown during the fairy tale lesson. After students had analyzed the fairy tales, picked one, and made their own storyboard and script, they were allowed to shoot their creation. But, before this step, Reed had his students watch student videos made the previous year. We were luckily observing at this time. Reed was not just showing his students examples of other student-made movies to help them with their own productions. He was using the student-made videos as yet another media text to be critically analyzed and discussed. After each student-made film (they ran about no more than two minutes in length each) Reed paused the DVD and asked students open-ended questions about the films. Just as the students would analyze a Hollywood film or a mainstream commercial, they were analyzing peer-made movies. This part of the lesson not only furthered the students’ critical skills, it also helped to assure them that they too could make great films. Conversely, Corcoran can easily be labeled a protectionist. He believes that his students need to be able to deconstruct a media message in order to be inoculated against the media simply because it is bad. In his MISSING lesson, students are not learning about the real internet at all. Although the game claims to have users accessing the internet, it is just a program within the game that actually looks or works nothing like the real internet. Breaking down the text, the fake pictures in the game, is only to find a bad guy, not to understand what media texts are like in the real world. The main message of MISSING is to teach students how to practice safe internet use even though the game’s “internet” minimally, if at all, correlates to the real internet. While Corcoran told us that finding images hidden in the background to help save the missing child is good because it shows the students that predators can do the same thing to try to find children, we find that it can also be labeled as teaching the students it is a positive since they are using these same ideas to save a child. Yet, here we see Corcoran already incorporating the kind of binary oppositional speaking that MLE does not include. Another good example of Corcoran’s protectionist style is his discussion with us about his body image lesson. While it is important for students to be aware of stereotyping and Photoshop editing techniques in relation to how a media message can be manipulated, his framing of body image indicates that Corcoran is trying to protect his students from the media “lying” to children by telling them that “real people” are supposed to look like models. Corcoran uses what he calls MLE in order to simply protect his students against negative media messages. // Questions: Quantity and Quality // Reed asked approximately 25 open ended questions designed to prompt critical thinking and critical debate between his students. While at some moments the students seemed to be unfocused and paying little to no attention to the task at hand, we could see that Reed’s intentions were well-thought out and great ones. For example, after the plagiarism lesson, we were able to read the written responses students turned in at the end of the class period answering the prompt: “When hip hop artists sample lyrics, is that plagiarism? In a brief paragraph explain your reasons why you think it is or is not plagiarism when hip hop artists sample music from other songs.” From the responses, the researchers could see media literate and critical thought behind the students’ answers. The students included many different viewpoints showing not only their newfound knowledge of what plagiarism is, but also how it can be applied to their lives, through music. Students picked up on ideas of different people understanding media differently. Many students included lists of what plagiarism is and is not, depending on the context. Students showed an understanding of key MLE terms and areas to question when analyzing a media text. Many were obviously skills that Reed had been imparting to them throughout the school year. // Teacher views of MLE // We found it necessary to discuss Reed’s and Corcoran’s personal beliefs about the type of curriculum implemented in the classroom. Through personal interviews with each teacher, we determined that both of the teachers believe that they are using what most closely resembles the NAMLE model of media literacy. Reed and Corcoran seem to both understand the definition of MLE as defined by NAMLE and the 1992 Aspen Committee. As we saw from the previous data, Reed implements curricula that not only follow what he believes MLE to be, but also what NAMLE and the 1992 committee believe it to be. But, for Corcoran, there seems to be a disconnect between understanding the abstract concepts of media literacy and turning them into concrete lesson plans. Corcoran, implements what Anderson calls “// impact mediation” // and is often organized around content problems areas like violence, nutrition, body image, etc. because exposure to such media is seen as a risk. (Hobbs-The Seven Great Debates pg18). The lesson plans Corcoran described to us, as well as the lesson observed during the study seemed to clash with some of the major concepts of NAMLE’s core principles. Most specifically article 3.3 which states “MLE builds skills that encourage healthy lifestyles and decision making; it is not about inoculating people against presumed or actual harmful media effects” and article 6.4 which states MLE “is NOT about revealing to the students the ‘true’ or ‘correct’ or ‘hidden’ meaning of media messages nor is it about identifying which media messages are ‘good’ or which ones are ‘bad’” (NAMLE 2005). Corcoran’s lesson plans are more of an embodiment of an article issued by the American Academy of Pediatrics that describes media education as a way to protect children against the harmful effects of tobacco, alcohol, and sex. The aim of the AAP is to make sure children are able to deconstruct media messages regarding the items named above in addition to violent and sexual media content. We imagine that the AAP would support a media education curriculum like the one Corcoran teaches in his communications class. However, this course should not be confused with a MLE course as described by NAMLE and what we consider true MLE for this study.
 * Data Analysis **

Sam Reed at Beeber Dimner Middle School has designed a practical model for MLE in the average American classroom. He uses topics relevant to the subjects he teaches, yet is able to supplement his lessons with media access, analysis, evaluation, and production. The students are not only learning standard 6th grade English topics, but they are also learning to think critically about the media and mediated representations. If a teacher wishes to use Reed’s model of media literacy education in his own classroom, Reed’s case study has provided a model that can be easily adapted into any classroom in the United States. It is important to note that Reed does not only implement a media literacy curriculum in one class per day or one section of the curriculum, he utilizes MLE in every lesson he uses in his classroom. What is evident from this case study is that while teachers may think that they understand the concept of media literacy, they may be lost on how to practically apply it in their classroom. Corcoran is a perfect example of a teacher who believes he understands the concepts of MLE, but is unable to transform that knowledge into MLE curricula. His teachings are protecting instead of empowering his students. His ultimate message is that the media and the internet are messages to be feared and one must learn how to navigate them while avoiding the negative effects of the media. This opposes the NAMLE concept of media literacy that clearly states that the media should not be presented as bad or negative but as a place where knowledge and critical thinking skills can be honed and applied in a student’s daily life. There are many long run problems with Corcoran’s protectionist media literacy curriculum. One is that it will teach students to ultimately mistrust the media. As Flores-Koulish has indicated in her work on pre-service teachers; the exposure, lessons, and teacher message to students surrounding the media when they are students in the K-12 education system greatly affects their views on the media in their adult life. Pre-service teachers can be likely to imitate or reuse lessons they learned as students. In the case of Corcoran’s students, if they are ever to become educators in any manner, including even if they become parents, it is highly possible that they too will pass on a negative viewpoint of the media. The second major problem with Corcoran’s curriculum is that his protectionist viewpoint on the media might cause his students to believe that they can only learn about the media in the context of protecting yourself from the negative influence rather than viewing a rich text. MLE views media texts like traditional forms of school texts (such as textbooks and literature). By shedding such negative light on media, Corcoran is indicating to his students that they should not look to these texts to enrich their knowledge, critical analysis skills, or just their lives. Lastly, while at first glance it seems that Corcoran is not utilizing one of the practices of non-optimal uses of video in classroom, we argue he is. He views using the MISSING game as a way to teach media literacy. We view it as a non-optimal use of technology in the classroom, closely relating to the non-optimal uses of media as defined by Hobbs. Letting the students work on making progress can fit into any of the following non-optimal uses including teacher uses [technology] to control student behavior, and large group viewing experiences give teacher’s a “break” (Hobbs Non-Optimal). Using MISSING allowed Corcoran to not only have to not design a lesson plan for 50-minute class periods it takes the students to finish all six levels, but it also kept the students quiet and occupied. Corcoran did very little teaching, if any at all. It is important to note that the students, unlike in Reed’s classroom, were perfectly behaved. It would be easy for Reed then to use games like MISSING to keep his rowdy students quiet, but instead he chooses to deign MLE curricula that aim at critical thinking and critical discussion, even if some days discipline has to take the front seat. We find it important to note the personalities and attitudes of the two teachers. Reed is a laid back teacher. He speaks to his students in a very conversational style and is always on their level. He breaks down hieratical walls, and lets all of his students feel as though they can lead a class discussion. Regarding discipline, this does not always work in his favor. Because Reed takes the backseat and tries never to talk at the students, or lecture to them, Reed’s presence is not very strong in the classroom. With many ill-behaved students in his class, it is sometimes hard to get through a whole, or even a half of a lesson. Yet, regarding MLE standards, his breakdown of the teacher-student barrier is phenomenal. Not only does he never impose his beliefs or attitudes toward a media text, he allows critical analysis and critical discussion to thrive. With all of Reed’s success, he is far from a boastful teacher. While interviewing him, he constantly would let us know that he wants to continue to learn how he can get better. He admits to not knowing everything and loves going to conferences and meeting new people to gain fresh ideas. Reed also did not try to hide the fact that sometimes his class is misbehaved. “I am not embarrassed,” he told us, “there are good days and there are bad days, you just caught us on a bad day” (personal). Reed’s honesty reflected his teaching goals in general. It is not his job to push information down his students’ throats. He is just there to facilitate smooth discussion, and if the kids are having a bad day and good discussion is lacking, he knows that just him yelling at them will solve nothing, and definitely not inspire media literacy. Corcoran drastically differs from Reed. His presence in the classroom is strong and known. It seemed that it would be very rare for a student to step out of line in his classroom. Corcoran also has a much more confident attitude than Reed. He believes that he has much to offer his students in the ways of MLE. In our personal interview with Corcoran, he told us of many instances that he believed he was teaching a great media literacy lesson that actually does not fall into the true definition of MLE. An example of this is his discussion with us about My Pop Studio. My Pop Studio is an online game that helps students to learn how to critically think about media texts. The examples presented are very much like those that children are exposed to every day. Children can get a behind-the-scenes look at putting together media texts and begin to learn that companies have agendas in mind when creating messages ( MY Pop Studio). At first glance it seems that Corcoran was actually on the right track in using My Pop Studio. We, and other MLE scholars, see this as a true media literacy tool. Yet, Corcoran then explained to us, very proudly, that uses the website to teach a lesson on target audience. All he had to say about the site is “It is aimed at girls!” (personal). Here we can see an example of how Corcoran is not teaching media literacy to its full potential but truly believing he is imparting media literacy skills. Corcoran does not understand that just telling the students that a website is aimed at one gender more than the other is not media literacy. Furthermore, the students do not use the website to learn how to critically analyze media texts. Just as Corcoran has missed the point of My Pop Studio, we feel he consistently misses the point of MLE.
 * Discussion **

Research on models of media literacy education being used in the classroom by average American teachers is crucial. There is much literature on the abreactions of media literacy, and existing literature on case studies like Goodman’s Teaching Youth Media and Hobbs’ Reading the Media. However, researchers must go beyond and conduct research on not only how it is being implemented by teachers, but the most effective way to teach teachers to effectively implement MLE. By the same token, it is imperative that research is done on the most effective typed of MLE curricula being used in the classroom for both teachers and students. It is crucial that MLE be further brought out of abstraction and into a practical application. This model needs to be adaptable and fluid as to be effective and practical for teachers in different school districts with different needs.
 * Future Research **

Works Referenced American Academy of Pediatrics. Media Education. //Pediatrics 104//(2), 341-343. Flores-Koulish, S. (2005). Preservice teachers and their media worlds. //Journal of School Leadership// 15(3). Goodman, S. (2003). //Teaching youth media.// New York: Teachers College Press. Hobbs, R. (1998). The seven great debates in the media literacy movement. //Journal of Communication, 48 (2)//: 9-29. Hobbs, R. (2006). Non-optimal uses of video in the classroom. //Learning, Media and Technology 31//(1), 45 - 50//.// Hobbs, R. (2007). //Reading the media: Media literacy in high school English.// New York: Teachers College Press Missing computer game reaches one million children in fight against online predators; web wise kids empowers children to be safe online. (2005, October 12). //Business Wire//, Retrieved from http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0EIN/is_2005_Oct_12/ai_n15685880/pg_2/?tag=content;col1 National Association for Media Literacy Education (2008). Key Principles of Media Literacy Education. Thoman, E., & Jolls, T. (2005). Media literacy education: Lessons from the Center for Media Literacy. In G. Schwartz & P. U. Brown (Eds.),//Media literacy: Transforming curriculum and teaching// (Vol. 104, pp. 180-205).